The advantage of chiplets is first of all to improve economic efficiency.
Chiplet reduces the impact of wafer defects on yield by integrating small-area chips, so it has significant advantages over large-area single SoCs in terms of overall economic benefits. In addition, Chiplet can break through the area constraints of a single chip and can perform heterogeneous integration. However, Chiplet has higher heat dissipation, power consumption and space requirements than SoC, so it is more suitable for chips with large computing power.
The world's leading system manufacturers are accelerating the industrialization of Chiplets, and the importance of unified interfaces and EDA tools has increased.
Leading chip factories such as #AMD, Intel, #Nvidia, Samsung and #Apple are gradually using Chiplet technology in chip design and manufacturing. At the design level, Chiplets can shorten the chip design process for system companies, but requires efficient on-chip network design and a unified interface protocol. At the same time, chiplet design also puts forward higher requirements for EDA tools, adding new functions such as thermodynamics and mechanical analysis.
The complexity of chiplet manufacturing steps has increased, and the requirements for packaging processes, equipment, and materials have increased.
Because chiplet manufacturing involves photolithography, its production process is distributed in IDMs, fabs, and packaging factories. Therefore, there is a trend of gradual integration of front-end manufacturing and back-end manufacturing, and packaging and testing factories are expected to usher in a rise in volume and price.
In terms of equipment, the demand for photolithography, etching, electroplating, bonding and testing equipment has increased significantly; in terms of materials, in addition to the increase in photolithography materials, the amount of chip underfill materials, bonding adhesives, plastic packaging materials and packaging substrates, etc. improved.
Risk
Technology development is not up to expectations; downstream demand is not up to expectations; advanced packaging upstream raw materials and equipment imports are blocked.
Marriage is a beautiful union between two people who love each other and are ready to commit to a life together. In today's fast-paced world, finding a life partner has become challenging. With people being busy with their work and social lives, it has become increasingly difficult to meet new people and form meaningful relationships. In this article, we will discuss the challenges of choosing a life partner and how marriage sites can help overcome these challenges. We will also provide tips on making the most out of your experience on marriage sites and identifying potential red flags. Finally, we will explore the success stories of couples who have found their life partners through marriage sites.
The Challenges We Face While Choosing a Life partner
1. Cultural Differences
One of the biggest challenges that we face while choosing a life partner for marriage is cultural differences. In today's globalized world, people from different cultures and backgrounds come together, which can lead to misunderstandings and conflicts. Understanding and respecting each other's cultural values and beliefs is essential for a successful marriage.
2. Compatibility
Compatibility is another crucial factor that needs to be considered while choosing a life partner for marriage. Finding someone with similar interests, values, and beliefs ensures a harmonious relationship. In today's fast-paced world, people often don't have the time to get to know each other before getting married. Compatibility also includes factors such as lifestyle, personality, and goals in life.
In many cultures, the relationship between the in-laws is just as important as that between the couple. So it is challenging to find a life partner compatible with your in-laws. It can also be hard to navigate the dynamics of a new family and build strong relationships with your in-laws.
3. Family Background
Family background is another important factor when choosing a life partner for marriage. Knowing about the family's values, traditions, and beliefs is essential to ensure a smooth transition into the new family. Family background also includes financial stability, education, and social status.
4. Age Difference
While age is just a number, it can affect the dynamics of the relationship. Finding someone at a similar stage in life is essential to ensure a successful marriage. In some cultures, a stigma is attached to marrying someone older or younger than you. It can limit your options and make finding someone compatible with you harder.
5. Language Barrier
Communication is the key to a successful relationship, and if there is a language barrier, it can lead to misunderstandings and conflicts. It is essential to find someone who speaks the same language or is willing to learn the language to ensure effective communication.
6. Religious Differences
Religious differences can also be challenging when choosing a life partner for marriage. Finding someone with similar religious beliefs and values ensures a harmonious relationship. Religious differences can lead to conflicts and misunderstandings, which can affect the dynamics of the relationship.
7. Family and Social Pressure
In some cultures, there is a lot of pressure to get married at a certain age or to marry someone from a particular background. Families play a significant role in finding a life partner for marriage. It can lead to pressure from family members to find someone who meets their expectations. Making a decision based on personal preferences rather than social pressure is essential.
8. Trust Issues
Trust is essential in any relationship; building trust with someone you have just met can be challenging. It can be hard to know if someone is honest with you, leading to doubts and insecurities. Building trust takes time, and it can be challenging to find a marriage partner.
9. Financial Compatibility
Financial stability is another factor that can make finding a marriage partner challenging. In some cultures, the man is expected to be the primary breadwinner. So, it can only limit your options if you are financially stable. Finding someone who shares your financial goals and values can also be challenging. Financial Compatibility also includes debt, savings, and spending habits.
10. Personal Preferences
Personal preferences are also essential when choosing a life partner for marriage. Finding someone who meets personal preferences such as physical appearance, personality, and interests is essential. Personal preferences can affect the dynamics of the relationship and should be considered while making a decision.
11. Distance
In today's globalized world, people often move to different cities or countries for work or education. So finding a life partner who lives nearby is challenging. Long-distance relationships can be difficult to maintain, and building a strong connection without regular face-to-face interaction can be hard. Additionally, people often have different timelines when it comes to getting married, and it can be hard to find someone who is on the same page as you. It can also be challenging to balance the desire to get married with other life goals, such as a career or travel.
12. Online Dating
Online dating has become increasingly popular in recent years, and it can be a useful tool for finding a life partner for marriage. However, it also poses its challenges. Online dating can be time-consuming, and knowing whether someone is genuine can be hard. It can also be challenging to build a strong connection with someone online.
Finding a Life Partner Using Marriage Sites
Now, we will discuss how marriage sites can help overcome these challenges. With the rise of technology, many marriage sites are now available to help couples find their perfect match. These sites offer various services, from matchmaking to wedding planning, and can be a great resource for those looking to find their soulmate.
1. Matchmaking Services to Choose a Life partner
Matrimonial sites offer various matchmaking services to help users find their perfect match. These services include detailed questionnaires, compatibility tests, and advanced search filters. The questionnaires allow users to provide detailed information about themselves and what they want in a life partner. The compatibility tests use algorithms to compare users' answers and determine which matches are most likely successful. The advanced search filters allow users to narrow down their search results based on criteria such as age, location, religion, and interests. Users can quickly and easily find potential life partners that meet their criteria with these services.
2. Wedding Planning Services
In addition to matchmaking services, many marriage media sites offer wedding planning services. These services can help couples plan their dream wedding without worrying about the details. They offer a variety of tools, such as budget calculators, guest lists, and vendor directories. The budget calculators help couples stay on track with their spending and ensure they don't overspend. The vendor directories provide a list of local vendors that can help with everything from catering to photography. With these services, couples can plan their perfect wedding without worrying about the details.
3. User-Friendly Design
Marriage sites are designed to be user-friendly so users can easily navigate and find what they want. The sites typically have a simple layout with clearly labeled sections and intuitive navigation menus. They also often feature helpful tutorials and FAQs that can answer users' questions. With these features, users can quickly and easily find the information they need without struggling with a confusing interface.
4. Privacy and Safety
Matrimony sites take safety very seriously and offer a variety of features to protect users' privacy and security. These features include secure payment processing, encrypted data storage, and two-factor authentication. Secure payment processing ensures that users' financial information is kept safe and secure. The encrypted data storage ensures that users' personal information is kept private and secure. The two-factor authentication adds an extra layer of security by requiring users to enter a code sent to their phone or email before logging in. With these features, users can feel confident that their information is safe and secure.
5. Customer Service
Marriage bureau sites also offer excellent customer service to ensure users have a positive experience. They typically have a team of customer service representatives available 24/7 to answer users' questions or concerns. They also often have an online chat feature allowing users to get real-time help. With these features, users can get the help they need quickly and easily.
6. Cost
The cost of online matchmaking sites varies depending on the features offered and the subscription length. Some sites offer free basic memberships, while others require a monthly or annual subscription fee. The subscription fees typically range from $10-$50 per month or $100-$500 per year, depending on the features offered. With these options, users can find a marriage site that fits their budget and offers the needed features.
Conclusion on Overcoming the Challenges of Choosing a Life partner?
With the help of marriage sites, finding an ideal life partner has become easier and more accessible. By being honest about your preferences and expectations, taking the time to communicate and get to know potential matches, and being open to new experiences, you can increase your chances of finding the right person. Remember that finding a life partner is a journey, and it may take time and effort, but with patience and perseverance, you can overcome the challenges and find the happiness you deserve. So why not try it and see where the journey takes you?
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Each production event takes a significant measure of wanting to be an implausible achievement. It has to be composed to run effortlessly about the best event. The involvement of an event could take a significant measure of your time. Despite which sort of event whether it is for exacting or business, the way it is arranged will decide how productive the event will be. Effective film production largely depends upon the resources you use; thus in the most competitive budget, you can hire 3 Ton Grip Package Los Angeles. The cash that is used for a film production event can be worthwhile if the final results will be flawless quality. The film equipment rental services offer you customized services based on the extent of production value.
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resistor color code calculator is the first band from the left represents the primary good sized figure (digit) of resistance. The 2d band represents the second one good sized digit of resistance. The 0.33 band is the multiplier. The fourth band represents the tolerance cost to which a resistance can vary. The fourth band is generally silver or golden in color.
As noted formerly the maximum vital rule which ought to be observed for studying the resistors is to begin from the primary band (that is at the left side). There are methods to become aware of the primary band from the left side.
The first band is relatively carved in the direction of the leg compared to fourth.
The fourth band of 4 band resistor is specific due to the fact that it's far silver or golden, Both those colours aren't used withinside the first band.
All the electronic devices that we use in our daily life, such as cell phones, laptops, refrigerators, computers, televisions and all other electrical and electronic devices are made with simple or complex circuitry.
ZTT-4.00MG DHW components Warranty 2 years RESONATOR, CERAMIC, 100 V, 4 MHZ, 0.5%, 30 PF, THROUGH HOLE. ZTT series ceramic resonator offers wide frequency range and extended temperature range capabilities with built-in load capability.
Resonators are designed to eliminate a sound wave at a given frequency. Just like waves in the ocean, sound waves have a peak and a trough. Sound waves of a particular frequency bounce inside a resonator. The peak of a sound wave meets through another wave of the same size, canceling out. Sound wave cancellation is what eliminates those annoying noises, giving you a better exhaust note. If you like the sound of your exhaust system but hear the hum a number of turns, a resonator can help you with this problem.
A resonator is a device or system that exhibits resonance or resonant behavior. That is, it naturally oscillates with greater amplitude at certain frequencies, called resonant frequencies, than at other frequencies. Oscillations in a resonator can be both electromagnetic and mechanical (including acoustic). Resonators are used to generate waves of specific frequencies or to select specific frequencies from a signal.Musical instruments use acoustic resonators that produce sound waves of specific tones.
Another example is quartz crystals used in electronic devices such as radio transmitters and quartz watches to produce very precise frequency oscillations. A standing wave in a rectangular cavity resonator A cavity resonator is a resonator in which waves exist in an empty space inside the device. In electronics and radio, microwave cavities made up of hollow metal housings are used in transmitters, receivers and microwave test equipment to verify frequency, in place of tuned circuits which are used at higher frequencies. bass. Acoustic cavity resonators, in which sound is produced by air vibrating in a cavity with an opening, are known as Helmholtz resonators.
A phenomenon of professional lighting can define a film with a limited budget. Superior lighting gives a mood, it makes sense for the story and characters, and it can scare or astonish us. Within the world we live in now, conquered by digital video recorders, lighting is more vital than ever. Digital cameras require more light, so it makes it twice as vital to a budget filmmaker who utilizes a digital camera to get it correct. Are you thinking about why film shooting has recently developed in lighting? It is as of chroma key technology. These screens are bright and agree to maximum mobility within the distribution of light all through the stage.
Buying lighting equipment can be an expensive proposition. To purchase specialized lighting is about to set you back hundreds of dollars, which will not suitable for a limited budget filmmaker. On the other hand, the Film Lighting Rental is a lot more reasonable. And they will take care of the equipment and operate it according to your needs. The options can work for somebody with a decent budget. Lighting is vital to any event whether it is public, art, or theatrical in addition to decorations and performers. Since a dynamic filmmaking tool from Video Lighting Rental Los Angeles, it lends importance to the highlights of the scene as set the mood for the shooting, and the theme of the occasion video advertisement as well. Photographers benefit the majority from the accurate lighting design of any set. No shadow lighting, for example, removes the intruding dark areas around the subject, conveniently showing it as a picture. Although modern digital cameras do not require film anymore and thus film speed factor has been removed, digital image capturing electronics vary in features, along with some cannot appropriately capture images within low light or into speedy motion.
Accurate lighting will let diverse photographers set their devices to the correct settings. Lighting has been used largely for fashion shows, movie sets, stage plays, operas, and concerts. These are events anywhere the audience is not very significant and all attention should be within the performances and the performers anyhow. Although today lighting is known to be in almost every place where it is wanted and designs are made to produce the best lighting effect. Professional Lighting Rental Los Angeles makes it a point to keep an eye on the present trends in production lighting, and matchless gripping tools can straightforwardly recommend you on what the majority of recent options are for your particular commercial film, short film, or promotional video.
2N3904 is a NPN transistor hence the collector and emitter will be left open (Reverse biased) when the base pin is held at ground and will be closed (Forward biased) when a signal is provided to base pin. 2N3904 has a gain value of 300; this value determines the amplification capacity of the transistor. The maximum amount of current that could flow through the Collector pin is 200mA, hence we cannot connect loads that consume more than 200mA using this 2n3904 transistor. To bias a transistor we have to supply current to base pin, this current (IB) should be limited to 5mA.
When this transistor is fully biased then it can allow a maximum of 200mA to flow across the collector and emitter. This stage is called Saturation Region and the typical voltage allowed across the Collector-Emitter (VCE) or Collector-Base (VCB) could be 40V and 60V respectively. When base current is removed the transistor becomes fully off, this stage is called as the Cut-off Region and the Base Emitter voltage could be around 600 mV.
2N3904 as switch:
When a transistor is used as a switch it is operated in the Saturation and Cut-Off Region as explained above. As discussed a transistor will act as an Open switch during Forward Bias and as a closed switch during Reverse Bias, this biasing can be achieved by supplying the required amount of current to the base pin. As mentioned the biasing current should maximum of 5mA. Anything more than 5mA will kill the Transistor; hence a resistor is always added in series with base pin. The value of this resistor (RB) can be calculated using below formulae.
Introduction
The manufacture of each semiconductor product requires hundreds of processes. After sorting, the entire manufacturing process is divided into eight steps: Wafer Processing, Oxidation, Photography, Etching, Film Deposition, Interconnection, Test, and Package.
Fig 1. Semiconductor Parts Manufacturing Process
1 Wafer Processing
Fewer people know, all semiconductor processes start with a grain of sand. Because the silicon contained in sand is the raw material needed to produce wafers. A wafer is a round slice formed by cutting a single crystal column made of silicon (Si) or gallium arsenide (GaAs). To extract high-purity silicon materials, silica sand is required, a special material with a silicon dioxide content of up to 95%, which is also the main raw material for making wafers. Wafer processing is the process of making and obtaining wafers.
① Ingot Casting
First, the sand needs to be heated to separate the carbon monoxide and silicon, and the process is repeated until the ultra-high purity electronic grade silicon (EG-Si) is obtained. High-purity silicon melts into a liquid, and then solidifies into a single-crystal solid form called an "ingot", which is the first step in semiconductor manufacturing. The manufacturing precision of silicon ingots (silicon pillars) is very high, reaching the nano level.
② Ingot Cutting
After the previous step is completed, you need to cut off both ends of the ingot with a diamond saw, and then cut it into slices of a certain thickness. The diameter of the ingot slice determines the size of the wafer. Larger and thinner wafers can be divided into more units, which helps reduce production costs. After cutting the silicon ingot, it is necessary to add a "flat area" or "indent" mark on the slice, so that it is convenient to set the processing direction based on it as a standard in the subsequent steps.
③ Wafer Surface Polishing
The thin slice obtained through the above-mentioned cutting process is called a "die", that is, an unprocessed "raw wafer". The die surface is uneven, and it is impossible to directly print circuit patterns on it. Therefore, it is necessary to first remove surface defects through grinding and chemical etching processes, then form a smooth surface through polishing and then cleaning residual contaminants.
2 Oxidation
The role of the oxidation process is to form a protective film on the surface of the wafer. It can protect the wafer from chemical impurities, prevent leakage current from entering the circuit, diffusion during ion implantation, and the wafer from slipping off during etching.
Fig 2. Oxidation
The first step of the oxidation process is to remove impurities and pollutants, such as organic matter, metals and evaporation residual moisture with four steps. After the cleaning is completed, the wafer can be placed in a high temperature environment of 800 to 1200 degrees Celsius, and a layer of silicon dioxide is formed by the flow of oxygen or vapor on the wafer surface. Oxygen diffuses through the oxide layer and reacts with silicon to form oxide layers of different thicknesses, which can be measured after the oxidation is complete.
Dry Oxidation and Wet Oxidation Method
According to the different oxidants in the oxidation reaction, the thermal oxidation process can be divided into dry oxidation and wet oxidation. The former uses pure oxygen to produce a silicon dioxide layer, which is slow but the oxide layer is thin and dense. The latter requires both oxygen and high solubility. The characteristic of water vapor is that the growth rate is fast, but the protective layer is relatively thick and the density is low.
Fig 3. Dry Oxidation and Wet Oxidation Method
In addition to the oxidizer, there are other variables that affect the thickness of the silicon dioxide layer. First of all, the wafer structure, surface defects and internal doping concentration will affect the rate of formation of the oxide layer. In addition, the higher the pressure and temperature generated by the oxidation equipment, the faster the oxide layer will be formed. In the oxidation process, it is also necessary to use dummy wafers according to the location of the wafers in the unit to protect the wafers and reduce the difference in oxidation degree.
3 Photomask
Photomask is the use of light to "print" circuit patterns onto a wafer. We can understand it as semiconductor parts drawing on the surface of the wafer. The higher the fineness of the circuit pattern, the higher the integration of the product chip, which can only be achieved through advanced photomask technology. Specifically, it can be divided into three steps: photoresist coating, exposure and development.
① Coated Photoresist
The first step in drawing a circuit on a wafer is to coat photoresist on the oxide layer. Photoresist changes the chemical properties of the wafer to become "photographic paper". The thinner the photoresist layer on the surface of the wafer, the more uniform the coating, and the finer the patterns that can be printed. In addition, this step can use the "spin coating" method.
Fig 4. Coating Photoresist
According to the difference of UV light reactivity, photoresist can be divided into two types: positive glue and negative glue. The former will decompose and disappear after being exposed to light, leaving a pattern of unreceived areas, while the latter will polymerize after being exposed to light to let the pattern of the light-receiving part appear.
② Expose
After covering the photoresist film on the wafer, the circuit can be printed by controlling the light irradiation. This process is called "exposure." We can selectively pass light through the exposure equipment. When the light passes through the mask containing the circuit pattern, the circuit can be printed on the wafer coated with a photoresist film underneath.
Fig 5. Exposure
During the exposure process, the finer the printed pattern, the more components can be accommodated in the final chip, which helps to improve production efficiency and reduce the cost of individual components.
③ Development
The step after exposure is to spray developer on the wafer, in order to remove the photoresist in the area not covered by the pattern, so that the printed circuit pattern can be revealed. After the development is completed, it needs to be checked by various measuring equipment and optical microscopes to ensure the quality of the drawing of the circuit diagram.
4 Etching
After the photolithography of the circuit diagram is completed on the wafer, an etching process is used to remove any excess oxide film and only the semiconductor circuit diagram is left. To do this, liquid, gas or plasma is used to remove the unselected parts.
There are two main etching methods, depending on the material used: wet etching that uses a specific chemical solution for chemical reaction to remove the oxide film, and dry etching that uses gas or plasma.
1) Wet Etching
Fig 6. Wet Etching Method
Wet etching that uses chemical solutions to remove oxide films has the advantages of low cost, fast etching speed, and high productivity. However, wet etching has the characteristics of isotropy, that is, its speed is the same in any direction. This will cause the mask (or sensitive film) and the etched oxide film to not be completely aligned, making it difficult to process very fine circuit diagrams.
2) Dry Etching
Dry etching can be divided into three different types:
The first is chemical etching, which uses etching gas (mainly hydrogen fluoride). Like wet etching, this method is also isotropic, which means that it is not suitable for fine etching.
The second method is physical sputtering, that is, ions in the plasma are used to strike and remove the excess oxide layer. As an anisotropic etching method, it has different etching speeds in the horizontal and vertical directions, so its fineness must exceed that of chemical etching. However, the disadvantage of this method is that the etching speed is slow, because it completely relies on the physical reaction caused by ion collision.
Fig 7. Physical Sputtering
The third method is reactive ion etching (RIE). It combines the first two methods, that is, while using plasma for ionized physical etching, and chemical etching is performed with free radicals generated after plasma activation. In addition to the etching speed exceeding the first two methods, RIE can use the characteristics of ion anisotropy to achieve high-definition pattern etching.
Fig 8. Reactive Ion Etching (RIE)
Now dry etching has been widely used to improve the yield of fine semiconductor circuits. Maintaining the uniformity of full-wafer etching and increasing the etching speed are crucial. Today's most advanced dry etching equipment is supporting the production of the most advanced logic and memory chips with higher performance.
5 Film Deposition
In order to create the micro devices inside the chip, we need to continuously deposit layers of thin films and remove the excess parts by etching, and add some materials to separate the different devices. Each transistor or memory cell is constructed step by step through the above process. The "thin film" we are talking about here refers to a "membrane" whose thickness is less than 1 micron (μm, one millionth of a meter) and cannot be manufactured by ordinary mechanical processing methods. Here the process of putting a thin film containing the desired molecular or atomic unit on the wafer is "deposition."
To form a multi-layer semiconductor structure, we need to fabricate a device stack first, that is, alternately stacking multiple thin metal (conductive) films and dielectric (insulating) films on the surface of the wafer, and then repeat the etching process to remove excess parts and form a three-dimensional structure. Technologies that can be used in the deposition process include chemical vapor deposition (CVD), atomic layer deposition (ALD) and physical vapor deposition (PVD). The methods using these technologies can be divided into dry and wet deposition.
① Chemical Vapor Deposition
Fig 9. Chemical Vapor Deposition
In chemical vapor deposition, the precursor gas chemically reacts in the reaction chamber and generates a thin film attached to the surface of the wafer and by-products that are drawn out of the chamber.
Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition requires the use of plasma to generate reactive gas. This method reduces the reaction temperature and is very suitable for temperature-sensitive structures. In addition, the use of plasma can also reduce the number of depositions, which can often lead to higher quality films.
② Atomic Layer Deposition
Fig 10. Atomic Layer Deposition
Atomic layer deposition forms a thin film by depositing only a few atomic layers at a time. The key to this method is to loop the independent steps in a certain order and maintain good control. Coating the precursor on the wafer surface is the first step, after which different gases are introduced to react with the precursor to form the required substances on the wafer surface.
③ Physical Vapor Deposition
Fig 11. Physical Vapor Deposition
Physical vapor deposition refers to the formation of thin films by physical means. Sputtering is a physical vapor deposition method. Its principle is that atoms of the target material are sputtered out by the bombardment of argon plasma and deposited on the wafer surface to form a thin film.
In some cases, the deposited film can be treated and improved by techniques such as ultraviolet heat treatment.
6 Interconnection
The conductivity of semiconductors is between conductors and non-conductors (ie insulators). This characteristic allows us to fully control the current. Through wafer-based lithography, etching and deposition processes, transistors and other components can be constructed, but they also need to be connected to achieve power and signal transmission and reception.
Metal is used for circuit interconnection because of its conductivity, which is need to meet the following conditions:
Low Resistance: Since the metal circuit needs to pass current, the metal in it should have low resistance.
Thermochemical stability: The properties of the metal material must remain unchanged during the metal interconnection process.
High Reliability: With the development of integrated circuit technology, even a small amount of metal interconnect materials must have sufficient durability.
Manufacturing Cost: Even if the previous three conditions have been met, high cost is not suitable for the mass production.
The interconnection process mainly uses two substances, aluminum (Al) and copper (Co).
Fig 12. Al and Co Interconnection Process
Aluminum Interconnect Process
This process starts with aluminum deposition, photoresist application, and exposure and development, removing any excess aluminum and photoresist before entering the oxidation process through etching tech. After the foregoing steps are completed, repeat them until the interconnection is completed.
With its excellent electrical conductivity, aluminum is also easy to lithography, etch, and deposit. In addition, it has a lower cost and a better adhesion to the oxide film. The disadvantage is that it is easy to corrode and has a low melting point. In addition, in order to prevent the reaction of aluminum and silicon from causing connection problems, it is also necessary to add a metal deposit to separate the aluminum from the wafer, which is called a "barrier metal."
Aluminum circuits are formed by deposition. After the wafer enters the vacuum state, the thin film formed by aluminum particles will adhere to the wafer. This process is called "Vapour Deposition" and includes chemical vapor deposition and physical vapor deposition.
Copper Interconnection Process
With the improvement of semiconductor process precision and the shrinking of device size, the connection speed and electrical characteristics of aluminum circuits are gradually unable to meet the requirements. For this reason, we need to find new conductors that satisfy the requirements of both size and cost. With its lower resistance, so it can achieve faster connection speed. What’s more, copper is more reliable because it is more resistant to electromigration than aluminum, which is the movement of metal ions that occurs when current flows through the metal.
However, copper does not easily form compounds, so it is difficult to vaporize and remove it from the wafer surface. To solve this problem, we no longer etch copper, but the dielectric materials, so that metal circuit patterns composed of trenches and via holes can be formed, and then copper is filled into the aforementioned to help interconnection, which is called "inlaid process".
Fig 13. Copper Interconnection Barriers
As the copper atoms continue to diffuse into the dielectric, the insulation of the latter will decrease and produce a barrier layer that prevents the copper atoms from continuing to diffuse. Then a very thin copper seed layer will be formed on the barrier layer. After this step, electroplating can be carried out, that is, the high-aspect-ratio graphics are filled with copper. After filling, the excess copper can be removed by a metal chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) method. After completion, an oxide film can be deposited, and the excess film can be removed by photolithography and etching processes. The full entire process needs to be repeated continuously until the copper interconnection is completed.
It can be seen from the above comparison that the difference between the copper interconnection and the aluminum interconnection is that the excess copper is removed by metal CMP instead of etching.
7 Test
The main goal of the test is to check whether the quality of the semiconductor chip meets a certain standard, thereby eliminating defective products and improving the reliability of the chip. In addition, products that are tested and defective will not enter the packaging step, which helps to save cost and time. Electronic die sorting (EDS) is a testing method for wafers.
EDS is a process for inspecting the electrical characteristics of each chip in the wafer state and thereby improving the semiconductor yield.
1) Electrical Parameter Monitoring (EPM)
EPM is the first step in semiconductor chip testing. This step will test every device (including transistors, capacitors, and diodes) that the semiconductor integrated circuit needs to use to ensure that its electrical parameters meet the standards. The measured electrical characteristic data will be used to improve the efficiency of the semiconductor manufacturing process and product performance (not to detect defective products).
2) Wafer Aging Test
The semiconductor defect rate comes from two aspects, namely, the rate of manufacturing defects (higher in the early stage) and the rate of defects occurring throughout the life cycle afterwards. Wafer aging test refers to testing the wafer under a certain temperature and AC/DC voltage to find out which products may have defects in the early stage, that is, to improve the reliability of the final product by discovering potential defects.
3) Parameters Test
a. Temp Test
High Temperatur: Verify that the chip can work at a temperature that exceeds the maximum temperature by 10% or higher.
Low Temperatur: Verify that the chip can work at a temperature that lower the minimum temperature by 10% or more.
Room Temperatur: Check whether the chip can work at room temperature (25°C).
(The high and low temperature test requirements for storage semiconductors are 85-90℃ and -5-40℃ respectively.)
b. Speed Test
Core: Check whether the core functions are valid.
Speed: Test movement speed.
c. Motion Test
DC: Apply direct current to check whether the current and voltage are normal.
AC: Apply alternating current to test movement characteristics.
Function: Check whether all functions are normal.
After the burn-in test is completed, the semiconductor chip needs to be connected to the test device with a probe card, and then the temperature, speed, and motion test of the wafer can be performed to verify the relevant semiconductor functions. Please see the table for the description of the specific test steps.
4) Repair
Repairing is the most important test step, because some defective chips can be repaired, and you only need to replace the defective components.
5) Ink
The chips that failed the electrical test have been sorted out in the previous steps, but they still need to be marked to distinguish them. In the past, we needed to mark defective chips with special inks to ensure that they can be identified with the naked eye. Today, the system automatically sorts them based on the test data values.
8 Package
Square chips (also called single wafers) of equal size are formed on the wafers processed by the previous several processes. The next thing to do is to obtain individual chips by cutting. The chip that has just been cut is very fragile and cannot exchange electrical signals, so it needs to be processed separately. This process is packaging, including forming a protective shell on the outside of the semiconductor chip and allowing them to exchange electrical signals with the outside. The entire packaging process is divided into five steps, namely wafer sawing, single wafer attachment, interconnection, molding, and packaging testing.
1) Wafer Sawing
To cut countless densely arranged chips from the wafer, we must first grind the back of the wafer until its thickness can meet the needs of the packaging process. After grinding, we can cut along the scribing line on the wafer until the semiconductor chip is separated.
There are three types of wafer sawing techniques: blade cutting, laser cutting and plasma cutting. Blade cutting refers to cutting wafers with diamond blades, which is prone to generate frictional heat and debris and thus damage the wafers.
Laser cutting has higher precision and can easily handle wafers with thin thickness or small scribing line pitch.
Plasma cutting uses the principle of plasma etching, so even if the scribing line pitch is very small, this technology can also be applied.
2) Single Wafer Attachment
After all the chips are separated from the wafer, we need to attach the individual chips (single chip) to the substrate (lead frame). The role of the substrate is to protect the semiconductor chips and allow them to exchange electrical signals with external circuits. A liquid or solid tape adhesive can be used to attach the chip.
3) Bond
Fig 14. Bonding
After attaching the chip to the substrate, we also need to connect the contact points of the two to achieve electrical signal exchange. There are two connection methods that can be used in this step: wire bonding using thin metal wires and flip chip bonding using spherical gold or tin blocks. Wire bonding is a traditional method, and flip-chip bonding can speed up semiconductor product manufacturing.
4) Molding
Fig 15. Molding
After completing the connection of the semiconductor chip, it is necessary to use a molding process to add a package to the outside of the chip to protect the semiconductor integrated circuit from external conditions such as temperature and humidity. After the packaging mold is made as required, we put the semiconductor chip and the epoxy molding compound (EMC) into the mold and seal it. The sealed chip is in its final product.
5) Package Test
The chip that has the final form must pass the final defect test. All that enters the final test is the finished semiconductor chip. They will be put into the test equipment, set different conditions such as voltage, temperature and humidity, etc. for electrical, functional and speed tests. The results of these tests can be used to find defects, improve product quality and production efficiency.
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1 What is Breadboard?
When learning how to build a circuit, the breadboard is one of the most basic parts. There are many small jacks on the breadboard, which are specially designed and manufactured for solderless experiments of electronic circuits. A breadboard consists of plastic block holding a matrix of electrical sockets of a size suitable for gripping thin connecting wire, component wires or the pins of transistors and integrated circuits (ICs). The sockets are connected inside the board, usually in rows of five sockets. Since various electronic components can be inserted or pulled out at will according to needs, welding is eliminated, circuit assembly time is saved, and components can be reused, so it is very suitable for the assembly, debugging and training of electronic circuits.
2 Why are breadboards called breadboards?
The name of the breadboard can be traced back to the era of vacuum tube circuits. At that time, most of the circuit components were large in size. People usually fixed them on a wooden board for cutting bread with screws and nails for connection. Later, the circuit components became more and more smaller, but the name of the breadboard is still used. The breadboard most commonly used today is usually made of white plastic and is a pluggable (solderless) breadboard. It was designed by Ronald J. Portugal in 1971.
It is a process of verifying ideas by creating an initial model. If you are not sure how a circuit will react normally under a given parameter setting, it is best to build a prototype to test it. For those who are new to electronic circuits, the breadboard is a good start. The advantage of a breadboard is that it can hold the simplest and most complex circuits at the same time. If your circuit cannot be accommodated by the current breadboard, you can splice other boards to adapt to all circuits of different sizes and complexity. Such as integrated circuits (ICs). When you try to master how a module works and need to rewire multiple times, you certainly don't want to solder the circuit interface every time. Once you find a problem, you can disassemble each part to prepare for some troubleshooting.
3 How Breadboard Looks like?
The shape of the breadboard is mostly cuboid, with different sizes. The breadboard generally has two layers, the top is a grid shape with double-sided tape adhering to it( you can tore it to fix the breadboard in a certain position). The upper layer of the breadboard is composed of a grid of rows and columns, and there is no conduction between rows.
The whole board is made of thermosetting phenolic resin, and there are metal strips at the bottom of the board. Holes are punched at the corresponding positions on the board so that the components can be in contact with the metal strips when inserted into the board, so as to achieve the purpose of conducting electricity. Generally, every 5 orifice plates are connected by a metal strip. There are two rows of vertical jacks on both sides of the board, also a group of 5. These two sets of jacks are used to provide power to the components on the board.
Some breadboards have two columns on the left and right sides. These two columns are customarily used as the positive and negative poles of the power supply (This is not necessarily true, depending on your own usage habits and circuit needs). Each of the five grids in the same column of the two columns is a group, which is conductive. But there is no conduction between columns. Then in the middle part, every five columns of grids form a group, and the five grids in this group are conductive. There is generally a groove in the center of the board, which is designed for the needs of integrated circuit (IC) and chip testing, and is used to separate the left and right parts of a board. Some breadboards do not have two columns on the left and right sides due to the size, but the other structures are the same.
The motherboard uses a glass fiber board with a conductive layer of copper foil, which is used to fix the solderless breadboard and lead out the power terminal.
There may be slight differences in the structure between different breadboards, but they are basically the same.
4 How to Use Breadboards?
You can use breadboard to make quick electrical connections between components- like resistors, LEDs, capacitors, etc, so that you can test your circuit before permanently soldering it together. Without welding and manual wiring, the circuit and components can be tested by inserting the component into the hole, which is convenient to use. Before use, determine which component's pins should be connected together, and then insert them into the same group of 5 small holes.
Example: LED Lighting
1) Materials
One breadboard, several connecting wires (the connecting wires should use needle-shaped wires at both ends), one led light, and one 3V button battery.
2) First, put the battery into the battery holder (this can be bought online), and plug it into the breadboard. Then, insert the battery holder into the left and right parts of the breadboard. Parts are separated by grooves to avoid short circuit between the positive and negative poles of the power supply).
3) Lead two wires from the positive and negative poles of the battery, and then plug the LED into any two grids that are not conductive on the breadboard (the long pin of the led is positive and the short pin is negative), and finally connect the wires from the positive and negative poles of the battery to the two LED segments.
5 Types of Breadboards
1) Solderless Breadboard
A solderless breadboard is a motherboard that does not serve as a base, and does not have a soldering power socket to draw out but can expand a single breadboard. Connect the two poles of the power supply to the sockets on both sides of the breadboard, and then you can plug in the components for experiment (the power supply should be disconnected during the process of inserting the components). When more than 5 components or a set of jacks cannot be inserted, you need to connect multiple sets of jacks with a breadboard cable.
The advantages of solderless breadboards are small size and easy to carry, but the disadvantages are relatively simple, inconvenient power connection, and small area. It is not suitable for large-scale circuit experiments. If you want to use it for large-scale circuit experiments, you need to fix multiple breadboards on a large wooden board with screws, and then connect them with wires.
2) Single Breadboard
A single breadboard is a part with a motherboard as a base and a dedicated terminal for power access, and even some breadboards that can perform high-voltage experiments include ground terminals. This kind of board is more convenient to use, that is, directly connect the power supply to the terminal, and then insert the components for experiment (the power supply should be disconnected during the process of inserting the components) when more than 5 components or a set of jacks cannot be inserted, you need to use breadboard cables to connect multiple sets of jacks.
The advantage of a single breadboard is that it is small in size, easy to carry, and can easily switch on and off the power supply, but it has a small area and is not suitable for large-scale circuit experiments.
3) Composite breadboard
Composite breadboard is a board composed of many solderless breadboards. Generally, 2-4 solderless breadboards are fixed on the motherboard, and then the power cords of each board are connected together with the copper foil in the motherboard. The kind of breadboards is also specially designed for different circuit units to control the power supply, so that each board can carry different voltages according to the needs. The use of the composite breadboard is the same as the single breadboard.
The advantage of the composite breadboard is that it can conveniently switch on and off the power supply, has a large area to carry out large-scale experiments, and is highly mobile, and has a wide range of uses. However, it is large and heavy for carrying, so it is suitable for laboratories and electronic hobbyists use.
6 Basic Principles of Breadboard Wiring
Complete the circuit overlap on the breadboard, different people have different styles. However, no matter what style or habit, the following basic principles must be paid attention to when completing the circuit overlap:
1. The fewer connection points, the better
Each additional connection point actually increases the probability of failure artificially. There are common faults such as impassability in the breadboard hole, loose wire, and broken wire inside.
2. Try to avoid overpasses
The so-called "overpass" means that components or wires ride on other components or wires. Beginner is easy to make such mistakes. It will bring trouble to the replacement of components in the later stage. On the other hand, in the event of a failure, the messy wires can easily make people lose confidence.
3. Try to be as reliable as possible
There are two phenomena that need attention:
① Breadboard integrated circuits are easy to loosen. Therefore, for integrated circuits such as operational amplifiers, it is necessary to press down forcefully. Once it is not reliable, the position needs to be changed.
② The pins of some components on the breadboard are too thin, so please be careful to move them slightly. If you find that they are not secure, you need to change the position.
7 Breadboard Using Tips for Beginners
1) When installing discrete components, it should be easy to see their polarity and signs. After placing the component pins, bend them where needed. In order to prevent the exposed leads from short-circuiting, a wire with a sleeve must be used, and the component pins are generally not cut to facilitate repeated use. Generally, do not insert components with a pin diameter> 0.8mm, so as not to damage the elasticity of the contact piece inside the socket.
2) The pins of integrated circuits that have been used many times must be repaired neatly, the pins cannot be bent, and all the pins should be slightly skewed outward, so that the lead angles and the jacks can be reliably contacted. The arrangement of the components on the breadboard should be determined according to the circuit diagram in order to facilitate the wiring. In order to be able to correctly route and facilitate wire checking, the insertion direction of all ICs must be kept the same, and which cannot be inserted upside down for the convenience of temporary wiring or to shorten the length of the wire.
3) According to the sequence of the signal flow, the method of installation and debugging is adopted. After the components are installed, first connect the power cord and the ground wire. In order to check the line conveniently, try to use different colors for the line. For example, the positive power supply generally uses a red wire, the negative power supply uses the blue, the ground wire uses the black, and the signal wire uses the yellow. Other colors can also be selected according to the real conditions.
4) The breadboard should use a single-strand wire with a diameter of about 0.6mm. Cut the wire according to the distance of the wire and the length of the jack. The wire end is required to be cut into a 45º, and the stripped length of the wire end is about 6mm. All the wires are required to be inserted into the bottom plate to ensure good contact. In addition, bare wires should not be exposed to prevent disconnection with other wires.
5) The connection is required to be tightly attached to the breadboard to avoid collision and ejection of the breadboard, resulting in poor contact. The wiring must pass around the integrated circuit, and it is not allowed to cross the integrated circuit, and the wires must not be overlapped with each other, try to be horizontal and vertical. This is conducive to line wiring and checking, and components replacement.
6) It is best to connect a capacitor with a capacity of tens of microfarads in parallel between the input terminal of each power supply and the ground, so as to reduce the impact of current during transients. In order to suppress the high-frequency components in the power supply, a high-frequency decoupling capacitor should be connected in parallel at both ends of the capacitor, generally 0.01~0.047Uf.
7) During the wiring process, it is required to place the various components on the corresponding position on the breadboard and mark the pin numbers used on the circuit diagram to ensure the smooth progress of debugging and troubleshooting.
8) All ground wires must be connected together to form a common reference point.
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